Black Athena, an audacious three-volume series, strikes at the heart of today's most heated culture wars. Martin Bernal challenges Eurocentric attitudes by calling into question conventional explanations for the origins of classical civilization. Provocative, passionate, and colossal in scope, this thoughtful rewriting of history continues to stir academic and political controversy.

Contents Preface and Acknowledgments Transcriptions and Phonetics Maps and Charts INTRODUCTION The previous volumes and their reception “Classics has been misunderstood” Anathema from a G.O.M. Outline of Volume 3 Chapter 1 HISTORICAL LINGUISTICS AND THE IMAGE OF ANCIENT GREEK Nineteenth-century romantic linguistics: The tree and the family Saussure and the twentieth-century epigones of nineteenth-century Indo-European studies Ramification or interlacing Chapter 2 THE “NOSTRATIC” AND “EUROASIATIC” HYPERAND SUPER-FAMILIES Nostratic and Eurasiatic Archaeological evidence for the origin of Nostratic and Euroasiatic Gordon Childe and Colin Renfrew Language and genetics Conclusion Chapter 3 AFROASIATIC, EGYPTIAN AND SEMITIC The origins of African languages and the development of agriculture in Africa The origins and spread of Afroasiatic Conclusion Chapter 4 THE ORIGINS OF INDO-HITTITE AND INDOEUROPEAN AND THEIR CONTACTS WITH OTHER LANGUAGES The origins and diffusion of Indo-Hittite and Indo-European Loans from other languages into PIH Development of an Indo-European gender system based on sex Conclusion Chapter 5 THE GREEK LANGUAGE IN THE MEDITERRANEAN CONTEXT: PART 1, PHONOLOGY Greek: Result of a linguistic shift or of language contact? The elements of the Greek linguistic amalgam The phonologies of Indo-Hittite and Indo-European Phonological developments from PIE to Greek Conclusion Chapter 6 THE GREEK LANGUAGE IN THE MEDITERRANEAN CONTEXT: PART 2, MORPHOLOGICAL AND SYNTACTICAL DEVELOPMENTS Morphology Syntax Summary on syntactical changes Conclusion Chapter 7 THE GREEK LANGUAGE IN THE MEDITERRANEAN CONTEXT: PART 3, LEXICON Introduction The study of lexical borrowings Ancient Greeks’ sense of lexical borrowing Loans from Afroasiatic into Greek and into Albanian or Armenian Conclusion Chapter 8 PHONETIC DEVELOPMENTS IN EGYPTIAN, WEST SEMITIC AND GREEK OVER THE LAST THREE MILLENNIA BCE, AS REFLECTED IN LEXICAL BORROWINGS Introduction Semitic Egyptian Conclusion Chapter 9 GREEK BORROWINGS FROM EGYPTIAN PREFIXES, INCLUDING THE DEFINITE ARTICLES Introduction Greek Borrowings from Egyptian definite article prefixes The Egyptian word pr “house, temple, palace” R- “entry” or local prefix (R)dˆt, “causal prefix” Greek borrowings from Egyptian verbs beginning with dˆ(t)- Conclusion Chapter 10 MAJOR EGYPTIAN TERMS IN GREEK: PART 1 1. Ntr/KÅ 2. OEnΔ 3. M(w)dw, mu'qo" 4. SbÅ 5. Dr, R-dr, drw 6. ÷Mwr,MÅOEt, Moi'ra, Meivromai and MmÅOEt, Ma 7. Ôpr Conclusion Chapter 11 MAJOR EGYPTIAN TERMS IN GREEK: PART 2 nfr (w)/ms nfr/ms Conclusion CONTENTS Chapter 12 SIXTEEN MINOR ROOTS Introduction CONCLUSION Chapter 13 SEMITIC SIBILANTS Introduction Loans of sibilants from Canaanite into Greek Lateral fricatives Sheltered /s/ sC /s/ before consonants Conclusion Chapter 14 MORE SEMITIC LOANS INTO GREEK Introduction Conclusion Chapter 15 SOME EGYPTIAN AND SEMITIC SEMANTIC CLUSTERS IN GREEK Nature and agriculture Cooking Medicine Conclusion Chapter 16 SEMANTIC CLUSTERS: WARFARE, HUNTING AND SHIPPING Weapons, warfare and hunting Shipping Chapter 17 SEMANTIC CLUSTERS: SOCIETY, POLITICS, LAW AND ABSTRACTION Introduction Society Politics Law and order Abstraction Chapter 18 RELIGIOUS TERMINOLOGY Structures Personnel Cult objects Rituals Sacrifices Incense, flowers, scents Aura Mysteries Conclusion Chapter 19 DIVINE NAMES: GODS, MYTHICAL CREATURES, HEROES Introduction: Gods Ôpr, “become” Ôprr, Apollo, Asklepios, Python and Delphi Apollo the “Aryan” Was Apollo a sun god before the fifth century? Twins, Apollo and Artemis Other Olympians Zeus Nsw Other gods Herodotos’ non-Egyptian divine names Demigods Mythical creatures Some heroes Conclusion Chapter 20 GEOGRAPHICAL FEATURES AND PLACE-NAMES Introduction Natural features City names Conclusion Chapter 21 SPARTA Introduction Sparta: *sper and SpÅt Anubis, Hermes and Sparta “Late” borrowings and Lykurgos Lakonian terminology Egyptian? Sparta and death Spartans and Jews Chapter 22 ATHENA AND ATHENS Introduction Summary of the chapter Armor and equipment Athena and her victims Athens as a colony from Sais? Summary of the cultic evidence Etymology of names H¿t ntr (nt) Nt Athea(ia) Conclusion CONCLUSION Notes Glossary Greek Words and Names with Proposed Afroasiatic Etymologies Letter Correspondences Bibliography Index