Psychological Foundations of Education presents some of the principles of psychology that are relevant to learning and teaching. It presents an alternative answer to the problem of the bifurcation of general and educational psychology in the curriculum of teacher preparation. While the solution is provisional and has obvious imperfections, it is offered in the hope that it may stimulate discussion of the problem and other solutions and/or explicit justifications for past practice. Key concepts discussed include teachers' attitudes and behavior, different types of learning, technology in education, forgetting and extinction, child development, and intelligence measurements. Also covered are the assessment of educational achievement, the social psychology of the classroom, and education in urban schools. This text should have a variety of uses in classes where students are preparing for teaching. It was written specifically for those situations in which the prospective teacher is introduced to psychology through a one- or two-semester integrated sequence.

Preface1. Psychology and Education What Is Psychology? The Purposes of Psychological Study How Psychological Knowledge Grows A Modern View of the Moon Illusion What Is Educational Psychology? Summary Suggested Readings References2. The Teacher and the Class Teachers' Attitudes about Behavior The Role Characteristics of the American Teacher The Personality of the Teacher Learning in the Classroom and Effective Teaching Summary Suggested Readings References3. Learning: The Acquisition of New Responses Acquiring Information or Developing Habits? Conditioning Motivation and Learning All-or-None Learning versus Gradual Learning The Problem Discrimination Learning Extinction The Discrimination Learning Paradigm Paired-Associates Learning Reinforcement Some Typical Reinforcements Secondary Reinforcers Behavior Modification: Reinforcement Principles in Human Behavior Effect of Amount of Reinforcement on Speed of Response Effect of Amount of Reinforcement on Quality of Performance Delay of Reinforcement Delay of Informative Feedback Latent Learning Response Prompting Stimulus Generalization Transfer of Training Definition of Transfer of Training Effects of Stimulus and Response Similarity upon Transfer Effects of Number of Trials during Training upon Transfer Transfer of Structure-Advanced Organizers Learning to Learn and Learning Sets Several Aspects of Verbal Learning Difficulty of Learning as a Function of Task Length Mnemonic Devices Effect of Degree of Meaningfulness upon Learning Incidental Learning Effects of Similarity within Parts of a List Thinking and Problem Solving The Mediation Hypothesis A Representative Experiment on Problem Solving Reversal versus Nonreversal Shifts as Related to Mediational Responses 99 Transfer of Mediating Responses in Complex Problems Transposition Discovery Methods and Learning by Rules A Model of School Learning Summary Suggested Readings References4. Learning and the Technology of Education Automated Instruction and Programmed Learning The Programming of Instruction Programmed Instruction and the Learner Defining Objectives in Learning Learning: Theory and Application Computer-Assisted Instruction Technology and Innovations in the Curriculum Reading Mathematics Instruction Instruction in Other Areas Science, Technology, and Education Summary Suggested Readings References5. Forgetting and Extinction: The Elimination of Behavior Forgetting Forgetting as a Function of Time since Learning Effects of Completeness of Learning upon Forgetting General Effects of Massing and Distribution of Practice Reminiscence Other Effects of Distributed Practice Meaningfulness and Retention Retention of Classroom Learning Different Measures of Forgetting Savings in Relearning from Previous Learning Means of Maximizing Recall Interference Theory: Proactive and Retroactive Inhibition Immediate (Short-Term) Memory Two-Process Theory Extinction Comparison of Extinction and Forgetting Spontaneous Recovery and Interference Theory Successive Acquisitions and Extinctions Partial Reinforcement Effects Frustration and Partial Reinforcement Some Principles of Response Elimination, with Hints for Classroom Application Effect of Habit Reversal upon Learning Sets Summary Appendix to Chapter 5 Suggested Readings References6. Thinking and Concept Formation René Descartes John Locke Contemporary Views of Thinking Problem Solving Creativity and Problem Solving Concept Learning Stimulus Generalization and Concepts Efficient Learning of Concepts Concept Attainment in the Classroom Summary Suggested Readings References7. The Physical Basis of Behavior The Physical Organization of Behavior The Neuron The Myelin Sheath The Nerve Impulse The "All-or-None" Principle of Nerve Conduction The Synapse The Eye The Ear Taste and Smell Somesthesis The Central Nervous System The Spinal Cord The Brain The Autonomic Nervous System The Central Nervous System and Behavior Brain Stimulation and Learning Sensation and Perception Summary Suggested Readings References8. Education and the Atypical Child Incidence of Exceptional Children and Youth Visual Problems Auditory Problems Speech Impairment Motor Impairments and Special Health Problems Cerebral Palsy Other Crippling Conditions Epilepsy General Health Problems Mental Retardation Psychoneurological Learning Disability The Emotionally Disturbed Child Summary Suggested Readings References9. Normative and Biological Studies of Child Development Behavioral Development during the First Year of Life Responses Available at Birth Normative Data Gesell's Findings for Infants under One Year A Comparison of Infant Humans and Infant Chimpanzees Children's Behavior One Year and Over Children from 18 Months through Four Years of Age Children from Five through Ten Years of Age Youth from 11 through 16 Years of Age An Application of Gesell's Techniques to Classroom Procedures Typical Growth Patterns Height A Note on Research Methods: Cross-Sectional and Longitudinal Studies Weight Height and Weight at Two and at Maturity Psychological Consequences of Different Growth Rates Changes in Body Proportion Other Aspects of Growth Muscular Development and Activity An Example of Developmental Norms with an Indication of Variability Children's Sleep Effects of Impoverishment of the Environment Restriction of Experience in Young Animals Effects of Delayed Schooling Effects of Unusually Early Training A Modern Assessment of Readiness A Summary of the Comparative Effects of Age and Experience upon Development General Notions Behavior Largely Dependent on Age for Its Development Behavior Largely Dependent on Training Suggested Readings References10. Psychological Processes of Development Development of Language Behavior The Thought Processes of Children Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development in Children The Sensory-Motor, Preverbal Stage: The First Eighteen Months of Life The Stage of Preoperational Representation: Eighteen Months to Six Years The Stage of Concrete Operations: Seven to Eleven Years The Stage of Formal Operations: Twelve to Fifteen Years Some Research on Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development Application of Piaget's Theory to Teaching Development of Emotional Responses in the Young Sex Differences High School Interests and Activities Summary Suggested Readings References11. Motivation and Learning Theory Hunger Affects Effortful Behavior in the Rat Thirst Drive Sexual Drive-Its Biological Aspects Human Sexual Drive Activity Drive Curiosity Drive Other Drives Pain Stimulus Removal Drives Frustration Drive Secondary Drives Conditioned Fear Drive The Concepts of Threat and Stress Anxiety Conditioned Appetitive Drives Abundancy Motivation Achievement Motivation A Hierarchy of Human Needs Summary Suggested Readings References12. Motivation and Schooling Relation between Affiliation Need and Academic Achievement Use of Prestige as a Motive for Study Intrinsic versus Extrinsic Motivation Effectance-The Drive for Competence Achievement Motivation in the Classroom Level of Aspiration Motivational Aspects of Knowledge of Results (Informative Feedback) Praise, Reproof, and Discipline Contingent Reinforcement versus Teacher Warmth:Contradictory Principles? School Marks as Motivating Stimuli An Alternative to School Marks: Token Reinforcers Fruitful Uses and Limitations of Competition Benefits of Having Students Work Together Learning Factors in Group Situations Text Anxiety and Defensiveness Intellectual Interests and Their Relation to School Activity Summary Suggested Readings References13. Personality Dimensions and Structure of Personality Traits The Structure of Personality Assessment of Personality Self-Report on Personality Report on Stimuli Report by Observer Symbolic Stimuli Behavioral Observation Some Common Personality Tests and Devices Genetics and Personality Physiological Bases for Personality Constitution and Personality Physiology and Emotion Development of Personality Adjustment and Failures of Adjustment The Modification of Inadequate Patterns of Adjustment Personality and Psychology Summary Suggested Readings References14. Intelligence Measurements and Their Uses Scope of Intelligence Testing Types of Intelligence Tests The Intelligence Quotient (I.Q.) Variability of I.Q. Scores Correlation-A Statistical Measure Essential to the Study of Intelligence Scoring Problems with Adolescents and Adults Criteria of a Good Intelligence Test Direct Measurement, Correctness of Answer Key, and Objectivity of Scoring Relative Independence of Special Experience Reasoning Rather Than Knowledge or Memory Intelligence, Not Achievement Tests A Measure of Mental Products, Not Processes Limitations of Intelligence Tests Factor Structure and Special Abilities General Intelligence versus Many Abilities Creativity-One Example of a Special Ability? Evidence for a Relationship between I.Q. and Learning Ability Determiners of Intelligence: Heredity and Environment Heredity: Its Genetic Basis Genetic Influence in Intelligence Environmentally Produced Shifts in Intelligence Scores Intelligence as Related to Experience and Maturation Growth in Childhood Changes in Adults Variability of I.Q's from Test to Retest Intelligence Scores in Ethnic and National Groups Some Facts about Ethnic Group Differences Are Mean I.Q. Differences among Different Ethnic Groups Eradicable? Are Intelligence Tests Socially Biased? Three Explanations for Social-Class Differences in Intelligence Scores Possible Cultural Bias Producing Culturally Fair Tests The Practical Value of Intelligence Testing Prediction of Academic Success Intellectual Requirements of Different Occupations Summary Suggested Readings References15. The Assessment of Educational Achievement Some Terms Distinguished Evaluation and Measurement Discrimination and Mastery Tests of Educational Achievement Theory of Testing: True Scores and Error Scores The Information Provided by Test Scores The Reliability of Test Scores Definition of Reliability Coefficients of Stability-Test-Retest Correlations Coefficients of Equivalence Effect of Length of Test on Reliability The Validity of Test Scores Content Validity Criterion-Related Validity Construct Validity Relation between Reliability and Validity Essay Testing The Distinction between Essay Tests and Objective Tests Within-Reader Reliability Inter-Reader Reliability Increasing Reliability by Adding Readers Increasing Reliability by Having a Computer Score Essays Validity of Essay Tests as Compared with Objective Tests Relation of Factor Analysis to Validity Studies Suggestions to Teachers Who Use Essay Tests Rules for Developing Essay Test Questions Rules for Evaluating Essay Test Papers Time Limits and Test Performance Item Analysis, Selection, and Revision The Use of Test and Evaluation Procedures Evaluation of an Individual Pupil Other Evaluations Misuse of Achievement Tests Standardized Tests of Achievement Implications of Achievement Tests for Psychology in General Growth Curves of Achievement Need for Bench Marks in Achievement Testing A Nationwide Assessment Program Achievement Growth as a Function of Subject Matter Prediction of Achievement Scores Predicting from Aptitude Scores Predicting from Other Achievement Scores Variations of Achievement Test Scores in Different School Systems Rural versus Urban Schools Socioeconomic Factors Differences between Student Achievement in the United States and Great Britain A Twelve-Nation Comparison of Mathematical Achievement Possible Changes in School Achievement in Succeeding Generations Relation of Testing and Evaluation Methods to Teaching Three Points of View: Conventional Subject Matter, Test Theory, and Behavioral Objectives Approaches Methods of Course Content Selection Standards for Adequacy of Course Planning and Presentation Standards for Adequacy of Student Performance Summary Suggested Readings References16. The Social Psychology of the Classroom The Classroom as a Social Situation Reinforcement and Learning in the Social Situation Competition for Reinforcement Implicit Reinforcement of Responses Attitudes Development of Attitudes Prejudice Social Influence on Behavior Conformity Social Facilitation of Behavior The Nature of Group Membership Leadership Communication, Persuasion, and Attitude Change Improvisation and Attitude Change Group Atmosphere Group-Centered Processes Democratic-Authoritarian Leadership Summary Suggested Readings References17. Urban Schools and Learning Equal Education-The Coleman Report Head Start Higher Horizons-New York City Compensatory Education and Cultural Deprivation The Urban School-Some Observations Summary Suggested Readings ReferencesAuthor IndexStatistical IndexSubject Index