This book uses historical and interview data to trace the development of Puerto Rican identity in the 20th century. It analyzes how and why Puerto Ricans have maintained a clear sense of distinctiveness in the face of direct and indirect pressures on their identity. After gaining sovereignty over Puerto Rico from Spain in 1898, the United States undertook a sustained campaign to Americanize the island. Despite 50 years of active Americanization and another 40 years of continued United States sovereignty over the island, Puerto Ricans retain a sense of themselves as distinctly and proudly Puerto Rican. This study examines the symbols of Puerto Rican identity, and their use in the complex politics of the island. It shows that identity is dynamic, it is experienced differently by individuals across Puerto Rican society, and that the key symbols of Puerto Rican identity have not remained static over time. Through the study of Puerto Rico, the book investigates and challenges the widely-heard argument that the inevitable result of the export of U.S. mass media and consumer culture throughout the world is the weakening of cultural identities in receiving societies. The book develops the idea that external pressure on collective identity may strengthen that identity rather than, as is often assumed, diminish it.

List of Maps, Tables, and FiguresAcknowledgementsIntroduction1 National Identity and Puerto RicoCollective Identity in the Modern WorldThe Definitional MazePuerto RicoPART I: IDENTITY IN PUERTO RICAN HISTORY2 The Americanization Campaign, 1898-1948Puerto Rico as a Colony of SpainU.S. Military Occupation, October 1898-May 1900Civilian GovernmentU.S. CitizenshipExpressions of UnrestInternal Self-Government3 Commonwealth Status, 1949-1993Puerto Rican ConstitutionLanguage Issues ResurfaceStatus Plebiscite, 1967Agitation against the Status QuoPlebiscite Proposal, Referendum, Plebiscite, 1989-1993PART II: IDENTITY IN CONTEMPORARY PUERTO RICO4 Symbols of Identity: What Is Puerto Rico?Pride in Puerto RicoPuerto Rico as a NationPuerto RicannessSense of BelongingThe Perception of Uniqueness5 Self-Identity: What Am I?Puerto RicanNorth AmericanCaribbeanLatin AmericanHispanicRegional IdentificationNuyoricansPART III: IDENTITY UNDER CHALLENGE6 The Challenge to Puerto Rican IdentityConsensus: Existence of U.S. InfluenceDiscord: Value of U.S. InfluencePartisan Interpretations: Perceived Threat of AssimilationCoexistence with Cultural ImportsCompetition from Cultural ImportsThe Fear of DisplacementThe Vitality of Identity under Challenge7 The Resilience of IdentityThe Message of UniquenessSymbols of IdentityThe Fear of Symbolic DisplacementUs versus Them: Collective Self-AwarenessCulture, Politics, and IdentityAppendix: Field Research NotesBibliographyIndex