Research on parenting through the life course has developed around two separate approaches

1: Introduction; I: Parenthood and the Life Span; 2: Life Span Aspects of Reproduction and Parental Care in Anthropoid Primates; 3: Parenthood in Transition: From Lineage to Child to Self-Orientation; II: Biosocial Perspectives and Parental Investment; 4: Somatic Aspects of Parent-Offspring Interactions; 5: A Biosocial Perspective on Paternal Behavior and Involvement; 6: Parental Supplements and Surrogates Among Primates: Cross-Species and Cross-Cultural Comparisons; III: Human Variation Through Time and Space: Historic Change in Human Parenthood; 7: The Watershed: Change in Parental-Investment and Family-Formation Strategies in the Course of Human Evolution; 8: Parent Investment and the Child's Environment; 9: Socialization for Parenthood in Sibling Caretaking Societies; 10: Parenthood in Social Transformation; 11: Historical Perspectives on the Development of the Family and Parent-Child Interactions; IV: The Life Span and Parental Investment in Modern Society; 12: Demographic Trends in Human Fertility, and Parenting Across the Life Span; 13: Differential Parental Investment: Its Effects on Child Quality and Status Attainment; 14: Children in Their Contexts: A Goodness-of-Fit Model; 15: Parent-Child Relations in Later Life: Trends and Gaps in Past Research; 16: Parenting, Grandparenting, and Intergenerational Continuity